Consciousness & Artificial Intelligence (Part 1) - Mind Economics

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"I am a machine that thinks (...)The question: can a computer think? Obviously has a trivial answer, Yes. My brain is a computer. Listen 2 + 2 = 4, that's a computation. So I am a computer that thinks."[1]

(John Searle)

Abstract: Thinking about how artificial intelligence (AI) might make independent decisions is considering whether AI is able to generate its conscious mental results. This note’s examination would provide a valuable test-bed for mind economics of brain and AI. Mind economics and AI theorising about consciousness could be mutually beneficial. First, we investigate consciousness drawing on recent scientific proposals for the physical source of consciousness in human beings. Many researchers theorise that consciousness relates to the mind, confusing it with self-awareness. The recent findings in mind economics suggest that there is the brainstem region involved in arousal and brain regions involved in awareness and both are prerequisites for consciousness. Second, we look at the potential for AI generating these mental results similar to those created by human beings. We investigate the development in software intelligence, artificial neural networks (ANNs) and reflect on their current levels of autonomy. We conclude that it is desirable to postulate AI as an entity capable of generating conscious mental states. These results suggest that in the near future AI will possess the virtue of modeling itself as making free decisions. This would place AI not only within a broader study of mind economics but also within any other sphere of research impacted by AI's consequent ability to act at its own discretion (e.g.: psychology, sociology, law etc).

Keywords: brain, mind economics, consciousness, arousal, awareness, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence

Introduction: A recurring mind economics debate concerns whether there is a physical origin of the human consciousness. The contribution to this concern draws up on the recent scientific discovery that suggests that there is a part in the human brain known as the rostral dorsolateral pontine tegmentum (PT) that together with two areas in the cortex, these are ventral, anterior insula (AnI) and the pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) have been linked to consciousness. Two particular issues are – inextricably – linked in this analysis: the conscious phenomenal experience and the consequent ability to exercise the free will by human beings – and the potential for applying this same model to artificially constructed neural networks (ANNs) and consequent ability of artificially intelligent to act at its own discretion. There is an on going disagreement on whether the construct of an artificial brain is even possible. One possible view on this is that this theorizing about the likelihood of AI becoming conscious should build on the current technological exercise that led to the creation of a computer chip based on 'asynchronous collection of thousands of small processing cores, each capable of the erratic spikes of activity and complicated connections that are typical of neural behaviour.'[2] This particular achievement provides a strong indication that if AI technology has already reached this level of sophistication further constituent and more sophisticated achievements with regard to this type of technology is only a matter of time. A virtuous circle of complementary theorizing however is of main importance here. That is to say that theorizing in both areas of study, mind economics of the brain and artificial neural networks, plays of pivotal role in improving our knowledge in the area of both brain work and the design of conscious AI. It is appropriate to issue certain caveat here; this note does not attempt to provide a definition of consciousness but to suggest that there is the real possibility that an area of the human brain that is believed to be the key to maintaining consciousness could be replicated artificially and if appropriately stimulated lead AI to construct conscious mental events.

Outline of the Project: This study has three parts. First, it summarizes a theoretical framework and a set of hypotheses suggested as accounting for consciousness in neurobiological terms. It considers arousal and awareness that give origin to a conscious experience and focuses on regions of the brain that are responsible for the creation of both. This study is among the first to elaborate on the physical origins of both arousal and awareness. The former is regulated by distinct neural populations in the brain as represented by Figure 2 and the latter includes: brainstem—the rostral dorsolateral pontine tegmentum—that according to the most recent scientific arguments is to drive consciousness through functional connectivity with two other cortical brain regions (AnI and pACC). These regions appear to work together to maintain consciousness. This is followed by the second part where we analyse the human brain from the information-processing perspective that views the human mind as a continuously developing, symbol-manipulating system, similar to a computer. In addition, we elaborate on the current state of the art in models of actual artificial neural networks where we find that it is conceptually possible for the computer technology to develop artificial neural networks similar to those natural brain regions responsible for the generation of conscious states. Section three builds on those findings and concludes that the artificial constructed brain, if only accurately stimulated, could produce similar conscious mental results.

Physical Sources of Consciousness: The term consciousness has long been thought of as being comprised of two critical components - arousal or wakefulness and awareness[3] (see Figure 1). The former has been defined as a state in which a human being can perceive and interact with its environment but with increased ‘motor activation, responsiveness to sensory inputs, emotional reactivity, and enhanced cognitive processing.’[4] There are distinct neural populations that are responsible for regulation of arousal. Their activity increases or decreases the level of arousal under specific stimuli, such as for example moments of high stress or alertness. [5] (see Figure 2). These distinct neural populations include:

1. The hypocretin (Hcrt)-expressing neurons in the lateral hypothalamus

2. The noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC)-expressing neurons in the brainstem

3. The neuropeptide S neurons (NPS) in the brainstem

4. The serotoninergic dorsal raphe nuclei (DRN) in the brainstem

5. The histaminergic tuberomammilary nucleus (TMN) in the posterior hypothalamus

6. The cholinergic pedunculopontine (PPT) and laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) nuclei in the midbrain, as well as cholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain

7. Glutamatergic and GABAergic neurons located in the above mentioned nuclei and brain areas.[6]

As argued by some scholars the stimulation of this system not only increases wakefulness or so called arousal, but also influences other behavioral range of actions made by human beings which include: flight-or-fight responses, reward seeking, sexual activity etc.[7] Hence, arousal is defined by the level of consciousness whereas awareness is defined by the content of consciousness.[8] Constituent parts of awareness are as follows: self-awareness and external awareness. The former contains internal world of thoughts, imagination, emotions and mind traveling (day dreaming). The latter perceives the outside worlds with the support of the five traditionally recognized humans senses which are: sight (vision), hearing (audition), taste (gustation), smell (olfaction), and touch (somatosensation).[9] The correlation of both arousal and awareness give origin to a conscious experience and neither of them is sufficient on its own (see Figure 3).

As far as the position of distinct neural populations that are responsible for regulation of arousal have been well known to the scientific world for a considerable length of time (see Figure 1) the physical origins of awareness were always a mystery. Recently, however, a team of researchers at Harvard University claimed that they have uncovered the sections of the brain responsible for awareness.[10] Fox, Director of the Laboratory for Brain Network Imagining and Modulation, in his latest interview, stated ‘[f]or the first time, we have found a connection between the brainstem region involved in arousal and regions involved in awareness, two prerequisites for consciousness.’[11] This ground breaking discovery on consciousness has been conducted by a team of scientists who pointed that the section of the brain responsible for arousal is most likely regulated by the rostral dorsolateral pontine tegmentum in the brainstem (see Figure 4).

The awareness aspect of consciousness may be directly linked to the connectivity of this brainstem region with the ventral anterior insula (AnI) and pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) (see Figure 5). Although more research is needed, it appears that healthy functional connectivity of distinct neural populations responsible for the creation of arousal and the triad answerable for awareness may drive human consciousness (see figure 6). The result of this brain-work analysis allows us to see the whole path from the states of brain arousal through awareness turning to consciousness. Every step can be seen to be one of a series of straightforward almost physical events. The author is tempted to argue that this conscious sensation is an effect or element of this causal chain of brain events. This is the prima facie case supporting the theory that our mind works as a machine. The question that now arises is whether human mind works as a computer and whether these series of mental events could be replicated artificially. The second part of this study will be an attempt to elaborate on these matters.

Figures

Figure 1. Oversimplified illustration of the two major dimensions of consciousness: the level of consciousness (i.e., arousal or wakefulness) and the content of consciousness (i.e., awareness or experience). Adapted from S Laureys, 'The neural correlate of (un)awareness: Lessons from the vegetative state' (2005) 9 Trends in Cognitive Sciences 556–559.

Figure 2. Oversimplified illustration of the evolutionary conserved arousal systems in the human brain. These systems include the hypocretin (Hcrt) neurons (lateral hypothalamus), the noradrenergic neurons (locus coeruleus), the neuropeptide S neurons (brainstem), the serotoninergic neurons (dorsal raphe nuclei), the histaminergic neurons (tuberomammilary nucleus in the posterior hypothalamus), the cholinergic neurons (pedunculopontine and laterodorsal tegmental nuclei in the midbrain, as well as basal forebrain).

Figure 3. Oversimplified illustration of the two factors contributing to consciousness: arousal and awareness. Adapted from JT Giacino and others, 'Behavioral assessment in patients with disorders of consciousness: gold standard or fool’s gold?' (2009) 177 Prog Brain Res 33–48.

Figure 4. Oversimplified illustration of the midsagittal midbrain/hindbrain showing the midbrain tegmentum (1), basal pons (2), pontine tegmentum (3), 4th ventricle (4), vermis (5) and medulla (6). Adapted from www.researchgate.net

Figure 5. Oversimplified illustration of the rostral dorsolateral pontine tegmentum in the brainstem (PT) and the ventral anterior insula (AnI) together with pregenual anterior cingulate cortex (pACC) finds its place in the ACC region of the brain. Adapted from https://badassu.net

Figure 6. Oversimplified illustration of the correlation of both arousal and awareness that gives origin to a conscious experience. Created on the basis of illustration located at https://badassu.net

References:

(Oscola style of referencing)

[1] D McDermott, ‘On The Claim That A Table-Lookup Program Could Pass The Turing’ (2014) 24(2) Minds and Machines 143—188 <http://cs-www.cs.yale.edu/homes/ dvm/papers/humongous.pdf> accessed 21 April 2017.

[2] J Timmer, 'IBM researchers make a chip full of artificial neurons' (Ars Technica, 8 July 2014) <https://arstechnica .com/science/2014/08/ibm-researchers-make-a-chip-full-of-artificial-neurons/> accessed 21 April 2017.

[3) S Laurey and others ,'Two Dimensions of Consciousness:Arousal and Awareness' in Encyclopedia of Neuroscience (vol 2, 2009) 1133 - 1142 <www.coma.ulg.ac.be/papers/vs/EncConsc_coma_2009.pdf> accessed 21 April 2017.

[4] L de Lecea, ME Carter and A Adamantidis, 'Shining Light on Wakefulness and Arousal' (15 June 2012) 71(12) Biol Psychiatry 1046–1052 <www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3771638/> accessed21 April 2017.

[5] BE Jones, 'Arousal Systems' (1 May 2003) 8 Frontiers in Bioscience 438-451.

[6] Ibid (n 4).

[7] Ibid.

[8] G Vithoulkas and DF Muresanu, 'Conscience and Consciousness: a definition' (15 March 2014) 15 J Med Life 104–108

<https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3956087/> accessed21 April 2017.

[9] Ibid.

[10] D Galeon, 'Harvard May Have Pinpointed the Source of Human Consciousness' (Futurism, 8 November 2016)<https://futurism.com/harvard-may-have-pinpointed- the-source-of-human-consciousness/> accessed21 April 2017.

[11] BIDMC, 'Insight into the Seat of Human Consciousness' (BIDMC, 11/4/2016) <www.bidmc.org/

News/PRLandingPage/2016/November/Fox-Consciou sness.aspx> accessed21 April 2017